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Furthermore, IS activates NF-B signaling, increasing pro-inflammatory factors such as cyclooxygenase-2, ROS, TNF-, IL-6, and IL-1, while suppressing antioxidant factors such as heme oxygenase-1 and superoxide dismutase 2, through Nrf2 pathway inhibition, thereby disrupting intestinal homeostasis and promoting systemic inflammation in mice ( Figure 3 ) [116]

Red Flags to Watch Out For White, Faded, or Off-Color Product: May indicate missing or degraded copper coordination, signaling a potentially ineffective or compromised product

Moreover, reduced concentrations of HBD-2 have been demonstrated to hinder immune function and elevate the likelihood of premature rupture of membranes (PROM) as a result of an inflammatory reaction that raises pro-inflammatory biochemical indicators, such as IL-6 and TNF- (81)

Lu S, Xiao X, Cheng M