In vitro studies first showed that Mn exposure (above 10 M) induces apoptosis in dopaminergic neurons (Latchoumycandane et al., 2005) and the PC12 cell line, a common model for neurons (Hirata, 2002
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Additionally, the expression of mRNA and protein for both 25-hydroxylases (CYP2R1 and CYP27A1), 1--hydroxylase (CYP27B1), and VDR were downregulated, but that of 24-hydroxylase (CYP24A1) was significantly upregulated in the liver of HFD-fed mice compared to those in controls (Fig